Reducing CO2 Emissions With Rolling Bearings

For developers, reducing friction in internal combustion engines is now a high priority. By replacing plain bearings in the engine with rolling bearings, significant advantages can be gained, including reductions in CO2 emissions.  

In the push to develop more efficient vehicle drive systems, minimising friction in drive train components is critical. Re­placing sliding bearings with roll­ing bearings, for example, can provide significant improvements in energy efficiency.
Despite these potential benefits, rolling bearings, which were once widespread in engine designs, have been largely superseded by plain bearings. However, recent developments in rolling bearings suggest that it is perhaps now time for engine developers to re-evaluate their choice of bearings.  

Due to its sheer size and the distribu­tion of friction, the most obvious start­ing point on an engine is the crankshaft, with its main and conrod bearings. The number of bearings on the latest engine camshafts makes it particularly interesting to consider the potential for reducing friction there. Also, as the use of balancer shafts in passenger cars is becoming more widespread – in order to improve a vehicle’s noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) rating – the rolling bear­ing concept and its friction-reduction poten­tial must be evaluated under these spe­cific load and operating conditions.  

Rolling bearings for the crankshaft
In volume car production, substituting crankshaft plain bearings (main bearings plus crank pin bear­ings) with rolling bearings is cur­rently not well established. Previous attempts at this have been rejected for various reasons. However, given the current debate on vehicle CO2 emissions, efforts have now resumed in this area.  

Besides lower fric­tion levels, roller-mounted crankshafts are expected to reduce the need for pressurised oil flow. In addition, because of their better dry running characteristics and lower lubricating oil requirements, rolling bearing crankshafts are more suited to an increased number of engine start-stop operations.  

In the case of an unsplit crankshaft with integrated rolling bearings, the shaft material must not only satisfy the usual requirements for the crankshaft but must also be suitably prepared as a rolling bearing raceway. The bear­ing cages and outer races need to be split. The steel for such outer races must not only provide high rolling con­tact fatigue and durability, but must also be easy to machine and forge, and low cost.  

As well as the bearing life calculation, another key factor in bearing design is the identification of suitable clearances. Adequate minimum clearance must be guaranteed in all operating condi­tions, while the clearance also has a dra­matic effect on the engine acoustics. Analytical tools are now available that enable ad­equate rolling bearing models to be inte­grated into an overall dynamic system simulation. Practical experience also shows that when it comes to acoustics, an engine with a roller-mount­ed crankshaft is now a very feasible solution.  

Friction-reduction potential
In many respects, the conrod bearings have to satisfy far more stringent techni­cal requirements than the main bear­ings. Installation space is severely re­stricted in both radial and axial direc­tions, and extreme peak loads and addi­tional centrifugal forces occur.  
The increased wear can be offset by using specific cage designs and coatings, for example, copper/silver coat­ings and more recently, PVD (Physical Vapour Deposition) coating systems (Triondur).  

Friction calculations on individual bearings based on catalogue formulae cannot simply be transferred to this type of application, since the geometrical influences on the bearing, including dynamic tilting, elastic deformation and high dynamic loads are not taken into account in these formulae.  
This uncertainty can be resolved by using simula­tion tools. The fric­tion models used in simulation software are suitable for solid body and mixed friction, as well as elasto-hydrodynamics. The durability of the bearing can be predicted more accurately by integrating the elastic bearing envi­ronment. For this reason, rolling bear­ing manufacturers have invested heavily in developing specific, proprietary soft­ware solutions. Schaeffler, for example, uses its in-house developed software, Bearinx, for static calculations, Caba for rolling bearing dynamics and Telos for surface roughness in rolling contacts.  

With regard to the design feasibility and the specific challenges for the con­rod and the expected friction poten­tial, the technical effort re­quired to implement rolling bearings as the main bear­ings of the crankshaft is significantly less than with conrod bearings.  

Camshaft rolling bearings
In most modern engines, the number of camshaft bearing positions is relatively high and so the potential to reduce friction is considerable. However, compared to the crankshaft, the loads are moderate and so the ex­pected frictional heat relative to the heat transfer capability of the surround­ing components (the camshaft and cyl­inder head) is quite low. This means that when rolling bearings are used, compressed oil does not need to be supplied to the bearings. Indeed, most of the oil acts as a coolant rather than a lubricant.  

As far as frictional losses in the camshaft bearings are concerned, both software analysis and torque tests on the cylinder heads demonstrate that, in the case of the plain bearings in the lower speed range, the bear­ings operate in the mixed friction range. In contrast, at mid-to-high speeds, a separation of the surfaces by a hydrodynamic oil film occurs, which sig­nificantly reduces friction.  

Conventional camshaft design
One-piece camshafts with small bearing diameters require the bearings to be split (cage and outer ring). To conform to the preferred load direction, the bearing separation plane must be positioned in this area with comparative­ly little load, so that a reduction in the bearing capacity in the divided area is barely relevant.  

Unsplit bearings can be used for assembled camshafts, which have become more popular in recent years. This requires either mounting an inner bear­ing ring to the shaft or using the main body of the camshaft itself as the rolling bearing raceway – provided that the appropriate material and manufac­turing requirements are met.  

Friction reduction in tests using camshaft rolling bear­ings confirms this understanding. In the lower speed range, the losses caused by mixed friction in the plain bearing can be avoided, though at higher speeds the savings po­tential is limited.  

Tunnel camshafts
Despite the friction-related drawbacks of tunnel camshafts, there are still good reasons for using camshafts with larger bear­ing diameters to allow for an axial assembly into a hous­ing. The reduced number of bearing posi­tions compensates for only part of the increased system-related friction. In this case, the use of rolling bearings to re­duce friction looks promis­ing. The unsplit design with thin-walled inner and outer rings that is possible here enables the camshaft design to remain largely unchanged.  

Measurements on this type of system show a significantly smaller mixed friction range. The frictional advan­tage of the rolling bearing, however, is quite constant over speeds in the range 0.2 to 0.5Nm. Therefore, in tun­nel camshafts, the higher sav­ings potential combined with compar­atively moderate design and manufacturing complexity, results in an extremely favourable cost/benefit ratio.  

Acoustics
To analyse the effects of a camshaft roll­ing bearing on engine acoustics, a four-cylinder, 1.4 litre capacity engine in a compact class vehicle was selected. Due to the comparatively minimal level of acoustic insulation, any unfavourable ef­fects of using rolling bearings should be noticeable. A direct comparison of acoustic measurements in various driving situations yields differences between plain and rolling bearings that in almost all cases are below the perceptible limits.  

Optimisation of balancer shaft systems
While the need for improvements in fuel con­sumption is now clearly a hot topic for consumers, minimising NVH levels is also a given. Balancing the free second order mass forces of four-cylinder engines requires two counter-rotating balancer shafts that rotate at twice the crankshaft speed, exerting considerable forces on the cylinder crankcase that quadruple with speed. Due to the number of bearings required as well as the high forces and high speeds involved, the use of rolling bearings to reduce friction appears to be an obvious solution here. 

Initial designs of such a rolling bearing arrangement would be based on conventional methods. However, subsequent­ly, the effects of shaft defor­mations and elasticity of the housing on fa­tigue durability need to be considered using additional analyses. Other ef­fects on bearing life include oil quality, in terms of its viscosity, contamination and additives, as well as the non-tran­sient peak temperatures that occur during operation. Ultimately, the high peak speeds of balancer shafts in four-cylinder engines often require special bearing and/or cage designs.  

For cost reasons, the test­ing of the bearing design is often initially conducted on a separate test rig, which, for practical reasons, uses four balancer shafts driven in a specific synchronised sequence, in order to compensate for internal inertia forces.  

The speed capability of the bearing de­sign, the temperature conditions and the bearing life under various operating conditions are analysed in detail on the test rig. Plain bearing variants can also be directly com­pared with rolling bearings in terms of required torques, enabling friction reduction potential to be deter­mined.  

The reduced friction provided by rolling bear­ings compared to plain bearings is typically around 50% or higher, depending on design. This is remark­ably consistent over test temper­atures of between 30 and 120 deg C. Expressed as absolute values, this is more than 1.5kW at an operating temperature of around 100 deg C in the upper speed range. As well as the associated improvements in en­gine efficiency, this also has positive sec­ondary effects. The heat transfer capabil­ity through the surrounding compo­nents is often sufficient for the reduced losses in the bearings. This in turn eliminates the need to sup­ply pressurised oil to the bearings. Con­sequently, omission of the supply bores and reductions in oil pump capacity, as well as oil cooling requirements, are all posi­tive side effects.  
Indeed, development engineers at various car manufacturers have confirmed that fuel consumption reductions in the region of two per cent are achievable.  

Further potential for optimisation
Eliminating both a pressurised oil supply to the bearings and a race­way on the shaft creates further potential for optimisation. Since the movement of balancer shafts is generated by their imbalance, the force revolves together with the shaft, i.e. the direction of movement relative to the shaft does not change. For the rolling bear­ings, this means that only those rolling elements located on the side of the im­balanced mass will ever transfer force from the shaft to the housing.  

The unstressed rolling elements lo­cated in the area opposite the imbal­ance are kept in contact with the outer race by centrifugal forces and do not come into contact with the shaft. This eliminates the need for a shaft race­way. This area is only required to perform a supporting role when the engine is switched off and the imbalance mass is directed upwards. However, the forces generated in this condition are so low that a significantly reduced raceway width is sufficient. Re­taining a certain residual raceway width is also recommended in many applica­tions for acoustic and rolling bearing design reasons.  

Reducing the raceway width on only one side will increase the imbalance. In order to restore the target imbalance, mass is removed on the unbalanced side, as close as possible to the axis of rota­tion, as this increases the amount of mass that can be removed. Continual optimisation here can enable a balancer shaft mass to be reduced by 20-40 per cent compared to existing de­signs. In the case of a four-cylinder en­gine, this could mean a reduction in mass of up to 1kg. The mass moment of inertia in the balance shafts is also reduced by a similar percentage, which notably affects the design of the drive train from the crankshaft to the balanc­er shafts. There are also direct benefits for the acoustics in this part of the drive train, in the form of reduced excitation.  

A reduction in the raceway width ultimately has benefits that are specific to rolling bearings. With a cylindrical race­way design and the attempt to eliminate the pressurised oil supply via a supply hole, the possibility of oil mist penetrat­ing the bearing is restricted to a very narrow gap between the race and the outer ring. The new design, however, cre­ates direct, widespread access for oil mist to the roller set. This significantly expands the areas of application for rolling bearings with oil mist supply.